The Case Of Shimla Tourism Essay

The Case Of Shimla Tourism EssayShimla, the former summer capital of colonial India and present capital of Himachal Pradesh, is bingle of the most picturesque hill stations of North India. Apart from being the administrative headquarters of the state it is a famous and an attractive tourist in large numbers every year. It is also an entry pint to various other tourist resorts and recreational centers in the upper region of Himachal Pradesh, thus a convenient stop-over for tourists.The journey of Shimla from a serene hill station to a bustling city as an over exploited tourist destination has been gradational and not a sudden outburst. Its a place where things have definitely gone wrong when it comes to sustainability.3.1 Growth as a Tourist destinationThe outgrowth of Shimla is organic expanding from a village to a town and now a city. http//www.google.co.in/url?source=imglandingct=imgq=http//entirekingdom.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/shimla-city.jpgsa=Xei=ayOtUKzXMdGt0AG93YCABA ved=0CAoQ8wc4Twusg=AFQjCNEWb6Gec0PTY-FtYYtu6cxPcD0PTgTourist activities are concentrated along the core of the British town that is the Mall, Cart Road and Lakar Bazaar.The over developed southern side of Shimla solution http//entirekingdom.comThe man made activities have influenced mainly the southern list Shimla since the Union slope receives no sunlight. It is difficult to find any open space or undeveloped localize on the southern slope. There has been extensive newspaper clipping of hill slopes.Himachal Pradesh received a total of 151 lakh tourists in 2011 out of which 20% was contributed by Shimla, the laid-backest for any Himachal destination. The growth rate for tourists in Shimla has been 7% recently.Source http//www.kpmg.com/IN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ThoughtLeadership/Tourism-in-himachal-pradesh.pdf3.2 Impact of Tourism on the Natural and Built EnvironmentThe southern slope of Shimla has been almost entirely built over, as a result the original pattern of slopes have co mpletely disappeared.At places slope instability has been caused due to poor drainage facility of the area.Analysis of the slope let loose that in order to obtain maximum advantage of the sun, buildings have come tidy sum in steps, even in areas where the slope is much thanb the normally tolerable limits. (Beyond 36 degree are considered unsuitable).Some of the buildings are in dilapidated conditions because of the lack of maintenance and use of poor construction material than due to slope failure.Another impact of mass touristry is the crash on the local society. It has changed the structure of society itself by favoring certain groups of the population that are able to act with the tourists and provide services to them.As more and more tourists came in, the development of tourist and infrastructure facilities has disturbed the mountain eco-system.The damages of alterations in some of these areas have started to image like the places that a visitor wanted to escape.Excessive water consumption and ill management of the resource has led to a major water crisis. spill of personal identity and culture. The Britishers left a legacy of red sloping roofs behind which gave the town its character. The modern constructions are flat roofs unresponsive to the climate and identity both.oer intensive urbanization.Illegal buildings have cropped up everywhere.The traffic due to tourists and the overcrowding has disturbed the locals daily life and system.Overload of infrastructure (e.g. Car parking, roads, buildings, water supply)Changes in the urban fabric.New architectural styles which are at ties not responsive to site and climate and also the general image of the town.Spectacular views blocked by horrible concrete structures.3.3 Identification of issuesAfter analyzing the impacts and statistical data, the following issues were identified with respect to construction, planning and architecture of the place.Haphazard development of tourist infrastructure causing ar chitectural pollution and degrading the ecology of the place as well.Earlier buildings were not more than two to three storey high, but now due to less(prenominal) land available we can see buildings as high as six to seven storey high. This exerts massive pressure on the soil and causes optic blockades which are aesthetically displeasing.Due to increasing tourist influx in the town, there is a need for more tourist infrastructure and to accommodate slopes more than 36, which are considered unbuildable, are being cut down causing severe land and soil erosion. Moreover hills are being cut down in the hill station giving way to an ugly concrete jungle.Irregular checks and insufficient guidelines for development of tourist infrastructure and construction activities.The government and touristry bodies have aimed for growth in tourism but have only recently imbibed sustainable growth of tourism in its policies and that too non seriously.3.4 Conclusions and suggestionsShimla is endowed with immense potent as a place of tourist attraction, besides being a gateway to other parts of Himachal Pradesh. It requires special consideration in preservation of ecological order. There are certain spots, which are environmentally rich and need conservation. Many of the problems, which make tourism unsustainable, relate to the fact that many principles heavy to sustainable tourism are not acknowledged. They have not been adopted in the conception, planning, human body and development of tourism facilities in Shimla. A well managed, slacken paced, controlled, integrated tourism development is the option. A set of guidelines and suitable approach scheme needs to be drafted and implemented that calls for sustainable progress of tourism.(Parmar, 2003, p. 50)Sustainable forms of tourism like ecotourism should be promoted to encourage lessening the ecological damage being done.The primary objective of sustainable tourism strategy should be to promote planning, design and construc tion of all tourist infrastructure and buildings that are environmentally friendly, do not spoil the character of the place, help integrate social and cultural aspects to it.In fact one of the most imperative issues in sustainable growth of tourism resources is the contemplation and expansion of design and building standards in order to secure an optimum use of energy, water and land resources. This will result in efficient management for preserving the natural and built attractions in tourism industry.Regarding the socio-cultural aspect, Shimla has lost its identity especially when it comes to architecture. The buildings should be symbolic of the rich legacy Shimla has or reflect the culture and traditions of the locals. As of now the post-British construction is merely concrete with climatically and site unresponsive features and structure.In Shimla, things would not have reached such a drastic situation had there been an effective land use plan which controlled the tourist deve lopments and demarcated boundaries for such development.Buildings that have low environment impact throughout their life cycle should be promoted. Infact the norms should govern that. Importantly they should respond to the climate and context. Also the buildings meant for tourists should have high satisfaction levels and provide meaningful experience to tourists. The idea of sustainable tourism should be clear so that awareness spreads among the community and tourists both.(Khaksar, p. 37)

Investigation of Tunisian Geography Teachers

investigating of Tunisian Geography T solely(prenominal)ersIntroductionThe inclination of this sphere was to investigate more or less Tunisian geography teachers/ look forers tuition of query articles (RA) in side in their field, in peculiar(a) their use of metadiscourse and the factors that might affect this use. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods addressed the patterns of this tuition. Two study reasons brook actuate the choice of this topic hypothetical and con schoolbookual matterual.Theoretical Justifications Of The mootA close event of studies stimulate highlighted the facilitative role that metadiscourse plays in practice cognizance (e.g. Camiciottoli, 2003). Metadiscourse is delimitate, in the present reckon, as self- boundive lingual material referring to the evolving textbook and to the writer and to the imagined lector of that text (Hyland and Tse, 2004, p. 156). In formation culture scholarship, I adopted the componential inter treatal border on (e.g. Grabe, 2008). gibe to this onset, readers argon active relegateicipants who actively take companionship, connect it to previously assimilated noesis and make it theirs by constructing their own interpretation. They develop, modify and even reflect on both or some of the ideas displayed in the text.Research has shown that present moment gear quarrel (SL) and foreign speech communication (FL) rendition erudition process is highly Gordian (Grabe, 2008 Koda, 2007 Sheng, 2000). Indeed, a wide range of variables intervene in the process linguistic, metalinguistic, cognitive, metacognitive, social and psychological (Koda, 2005 Pressley, 2006 Rapp et al., 2007). Researchers reported the difficulty to clearly understand the exact degree of the shargon of each variable to the final product. All aspects of the reader variables move with one a nonher and interact with textual and contextual factors (e.g. Dhieb-Henia, 2003).Different pretenses bef ool been proposed in the belles-lettres in order to take composition of these factors (the Top-down go up, the Bottom-up approach, the Interactive approach) (Grabe, 2008). Also, there has been a debate among SL schooling look intoers rough whether SL interpretation is a dustup business or a interpreting problem (Alderson, 1984, Bernhardt and Kamil, 1995 Grabe, 1991 Khaldieh, 2001). Some researchers contended that some SL linguistic knowledge threshold was necessary in order to get offset language (L1) interpreting knowledge to engage and front language narration strategies to f atomic good turn 18 (Cummins (1979) threshold take aim of language increase and Clarkes (1978) linguistic ceiling). Others deliberated that reading difficulties in a SL can be caused by a deficient reading magnate in general, or can be caused by a helperlessness transfer of L1 reading world power to an FL (the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, or alternatively called the common underlying principle (Bernhardt Kamil, 1995).Reading in slope for Academic purposes (EAP) is even a more(prenominal) entangled process (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). EAP is concerned with the face required for specific academic purpose such as studying at universities and colleges, doing research or publishing papers. Based on the literary productions, the present study muckles EAP reading as the ability to read an EAP discourse as the product of a item disciplinary culture (e.g., Swales, 2004). Daoud (1991, p. 6), for instance, recommended that non-native readers (of EAP) should acquire those abilities which would allow them to recognize the existence of certain types of implicit presuppositional rhetorical teaching, abilities that the graveld native reader possesses. Studies in Contrastive palaver (CR) have demonstrated that texts are shaped by their cultural origins even if they participate in outside(a) discourses such as those of the science disciplines (Burgess, 2002 Connor, 2004 Kaplan, 1966, 1987). Mauranen (1993) preserveed that science, or more widely, academic research, does non exist outside writing, and so we cannot represent it, or realize it, without being influenced by the variation in the writing cultures that flow it (p. 4).This suggests that the printing that scientific academic discourses merely transmit natural facts is debatable. Hyland (2005) argued that discourses are never neutral but al focusings engaged in that they realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the set of those who ordain them (p. 4). The RA, for instance, is a discourse scripted by a particular writer belonging to a particular scientific discourse community in the purpose of engaging an audience and persuading them of his/her findings (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2005 Martin, 2004). Webber (1994) explained scientists are writers who fight for their ideas to be accepted, recognized, and to be competitive and get their work publish (p. 257). Th e tendency of scientific writers to choose a particular range of rhetorical devices, might reveal their tastes to establish interpersonal relations, to interact with their audience and to express personal attitudes about the suffice of their texts and about their audience(s).Metadiscourse is the linguistic dust that enables writers to achieve these goals (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2004 2005 Martin, 2004). It represents some internal stylistic map whereby an external reality is created and conveyed. Metadiscourse also helps to perceive discourse as a social action amid two parties, author(s) and audience, researchers and scientific communities in other quarrel, writers and readers are viewed as social agents and texts as a social enterprise in which writers do not just now want their messages to be understood (an illocutionary effect), but also to be accepted (a perlocutionary effect) (Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2001, p. 550) argues a central aspect of the writer-reader dialogue trains careful interpersonal negotiations in which writers strain to balance claims for the significance, originality, and truth of their work a dispatchst the convictions of their readers. The readers ability to construct the writer-intended heart and soul, via metadiscourse, is one major key to a prospering wisdom.This idea of fundamental interaction was grounded in Hallidays (1985) metafunctional possible action of language. Halliday (1985) argued that language is a system of meanings and maintains that the writer needinesss to move at three levels the ideational, the textual and the interpersonal. On the ideational plane, the writer supplies teaching about the able of the text and expands propositional content, on the interactive plane, he/she does not add propositional material, but helps readers organize, classify, interpret, evaluate, and react to such material.Many researchers have attempted to investigate the contributions of metadiscourse to language teaching. However, more or less of the literature on metadiscourse has focused on the writing skill. The immense part of these studies has compared writers use of metadiscourse across cultures and disciplines (Dahl, 2004 Hyland TLe, 2004 Ifantidou, 2005 Lee, 2002 Perez Macia, 2002 Steffensen Cheng, 1996). Only a few studies have examined the role that this pivotal part of discourse plays in reading comprehension skill.There is still an opaque picture of the correlation amongst the recognition of metadiscourse markers and reading comprehension performance. Indeed, a impregnable number of the studies conducted with native readers of English has yielded inconclusive matters (e.g., Crismore and Vande Kopple, 1997 OKeefe, 1988). While some researchers demonstrated the positive role of metadiscourse (e.g. Vande Kopple, 2002), other researchers concluded that metadiscourse did not have big personal effect in their studies (e.g., Crismore, 1989).Research on the interaction in the midst of SL readin g and metadiscourse seems to be still in its infancy. The little research carried out has demonstrated the interlacingness of the entreprise (Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003 Mustapha and Premalatha, 2001). In fact, research has shown that many factors could intervene in the reading process and hamper EAP readers from using metadiscourse, namely language proficiency, anterior disciplinary knowledge and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003). wording proficiency refers to the ability to understand technical and semi-technical language used by a particular academic discourse community. Metacognition is the awareness readers have of their own psychic processes and the posterior ability to monitor, regulate, and direct themselves to a desired end. Prior knowledge includes knowledge of the rhetorical conventions of the genre and the subject discipline. It has been also interesting to note that no study has investigated SL ex perts use of metadiscourse when reading materials in their fields.Local Justifications Of The StudyReading reticular activating system is a prerequisite for doing research, updating ones knowledge and ultimately publishing RAs. issuance is not optional or a matter of personal choice in Tunisia. The last reform of postgraduate studies has given prior greatness to the number of published RAs (Labbassi, 2000). Therefore, researchers who would like to become visible in the international scientific community, have to read and write RAs in English, the international applauder Frinca in the age of electronic communication. In fact, in Tunisia there are few specialised local journals. Labassi (2008, p. 4120 aptly put reading and writing English have become unavoidable conditions for joining academic communities in al approximately all disciplines. The Tunisian geographical society seems to be eager to integrate into the international geographic community. Indeed, the Tunisian Geographers Association, in collaboration with the International Geographical Union (IGU), managed to organise the 31st International Geographical Congress (IGC) in the coun demonstrate in 2008. Tunisia was the outgrowth Arab and African country to host the biggest appointment for geographers all over the world. Adding to that, there is a clear political intention to enhance English condition in Tunisia. English is gaining ground over French, which has been until recently the principal language of modernity, as well as the dominant economic language. (Champagne, 2007 Labassi, 2009a, b Tossa, 1995). The Tunisian political relation is aiming at creating an English-speaking workforce to enhance the prospects for successful integration into the global economy. Under the New Maitrise reform of 1998, English was introduced in the curriculum of all undergrad students from all disciplines (Labassi, 2009 a). What is ironical, however, is that potential researchers and professionals who have to read a literature, which is up to 90% in some disciplines in English, are not offered courses in English (Labassi, 2009 a, p. 249).However, magic spell the literature abounds with arguments for and against the role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension, little research has been conducted to assess the reading practices of the Tunisian geography society.Therefore, the present research aims to fill in this opening night and gain more insight into the reading practices of some Tunisian university teachers/researchers of geography in particular it aims to assess the boundary they use metadiscourse to facilitate their comprehension of RAs in English in their field and to find out about the variables that may hinder this use.Research ObjectivesThe main aims of the present research are three-fold (1) to de end pointine to what effect Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields, (2) to assess whether this use facilitates their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields, (3) to find to what extent this use is related to the participants proficiency in English, to text familiarity ( delimit in the present study in terms of twain content and formal knowledge) and to their use of metacognitive reading strategies.Research QuestionsThe present study addresses the quest questions1. To what extent do Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields?2. To what extent does this use relate to their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?3. To what extent do their proficiency in English, discipline-related knowledge (content and genre) and metacognitive reading strategies contribute to their use of metadiscourse markers and comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?Significance Of The StudyThis study explored the use of metadiscourse by some Tunisian geog raphy faculty when reading research articles in English in their disciplines. Theoretically, findings from thestudy can help crystallise the role metadiscourse plays in SL reading comprehension. The research into metadiscourse markers is useful in itself. It helps us have an insight into how writers interact with their readers to establish a reader-friendly atmosphere and to curve them of their findings. more(prenominal) information can add to our catch of factors contributing to language pedagogy, in particular to the teaching of reading comprehension skill.At the practical level, information from this study can be useful for making decisions about organizing training sessions to university teachers/researchers to introduce them to the rhetorical conventions of academic genres, namely the research article and to the rhetorical importance of metadiscourse. They should be made aware of the facilitative role of metadiscourse markers when reading academic materials in English. Met adiscourse markers should be taught explicitly in EAP reading comprehension classes as a content to enhance the researchers reading comprehension ability.Thesis OrganisationThis thesis consists of six chapters. The scratch chapter describes the mount of the research and the context in which the research was conducted. The second chapter comprises two sections the first is a review of research into the nature of foreign language reading. The second section provides a descriptive account of what metadiscourse is, so explores the studies conducted on the effects of metadiscourse, reviews a few taxonomies on metadiscourse and ends with a explanation of the taxonomy to be adopted in the present study. Research questions are presented after the discussions of these reviews. Chapter three concerns the methodological decisions interpreted for this research. It describes how the participants were selected, how the material and instruments were piloted, and which materials and instrument s were finally used. It provides as well an account of how the main study was conducted and how the data were analysed. Chapter four reports the findings of the present study. Chapter five discusses the key findings from this study and highlights their implications for the land of EAP. The contributions and limitations of this research and suggestions for future research are presented in chapter six.Literature ReviewThe previous chapter introduced the context for this research. This chapter clarifies the two central variables underlying the present study, namely EAP reading comprehension and metadiscourse use. It can be divided into three parts. In the first part, I volition focus on the reading variable. Since foreign language reading role model has been strongly influenced by first language reading theories, I allow for first discuss four different approaches to reading in a first language, I will then explain how they have been adopted in and adapted for a foreign language re ading context. Next, I will exposit on theoretical concepts particular to reading in English for academic purposes (being the focus of the present study) and I will draw attention to studies that investigated the interaction among reading in English for Academic purposes and language proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies. This part aims at underscoring the complexity of the EAP reading process and the need to account for the many factors intervening in it. In the second part, I will introduce the second variable of the present study, metadiscouse. I will first try to define the concept and then provide an overview of its main assumptions and classifications to highlight the confusion surrounding the term and emphasize its benefits to EAP readers, and last I will tip Hylands (2005) taxonomy, the theoretical poser within which the present study is conducted. In the last part I will review some empirical studies that have investigated the interaction between meta discourse and EAP reading. This part will also draw attention to the scarcity of research in this area.Reading ComprehensionUnderstanding the processes involved in reading comprehension is a prerequisite to select reliable and valid research instruments. Alderson (2000) stated if we are not able to define what we mean by the ability to read, it will be difficult to devise means of assessing such abilities (p. 49). Likewise, Hogan (2004, p. 1) maintainedThe real question we are asking when we look at assessing reading is What distinguishes a nigh(a) reader from a poor reader? Implicit in this question is an even more fundamental question What are we doing when we read? judging is an attempt to answer the first question, but if we cannot at least try to answer the second, we do not know what we are assessing, and any measure or description of reading proficiency we suggest is meaningless.Thus, in what follows I will first attempt to define the construct of reading comprehension, and then present a number of models that provide a framework for organizing and explaining the nature of reading comprehension. I will give due prominence, however, to the issues specific to reading in EAP dwelling upon the complex cognitive processes that EAP readers go through when they read. I will try to show how certain variables such as linguistic proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies interact with reading comprehension process.Definition Of The Construct Of Reading ComprehensionReading comprehension has often been a subject of controversy among teachers and scholars. Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated the terms grounds and comprehension are not scientific terms but are commonsense expressions. As with other such expressions, their meaning is fuzzy and imprecise. In defining the construct of reading comprehension, I adopted Kintschs (1998) theory of human text comprehension, as it is a widely-recognized theory of text comprehension and as it has consistently delimit the research agenda for the field of text comprehension (Grabe, 2008, p. 3).The concepts of Comprehension and Understanding are used interchangeably in the present study as a matter of linguistic variation following Kintsch. Comprehension is to be understood in relation to erudition and problem solving. Both perception and taking into custody involve unconscious and automatic processes. They can each be described as a process of constraint satisfaction (p. 3). They differ, however, in that understanding should result in an action, be it an overt action in the environment or a mental event (p. 3). Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated understand is used when the relationship between some object and its context is at issue or when action is required. As for the problem solving process, it is more complex and involves more drive on cognitive resources. It is an action readers resort to when they fail to understand something. Kintsch (1998) maintained perception and understanding are the proc esses people normally use when an impasse develops in perception or understanding, they resort to problem solving as a repair process (p. 3).Reading is the process in which the reader sequentially deals with garner, rowing and sentences. It was defined by Sheng (2000, p. 2) as the process of recognition, interpretation, and perception of written or printed material. Comprehension, on the other hand, involves the ability of the reader to grasp and interpret the meaning of written material, and to reason about cognitive processes that lead to understanding. In other words, it not only covers cognitive understanding of the materials at both surface and thick-skulled bodily structure levels, but also the readers reactions to the content. Sheng (2000, p. 2) maintained it is a more complex psychological process and includes in addition to linguistic factors (phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic elements), cognitive and mad factors. In sum, the process of reading deals with language forms while the process of comprehension, the end product, deals with language content.The term reading comprehension can, in some respects, be considered a complex construct, as highlighted by numerous reading researchers (Carrell, 1988 Grabe, 1991 Kintsch, 1998 de Beaugrande, 1981). According to Brumfit (1980), reading comprehension is a complex activity covering a combination of perceptual, linguistic and cognitive abilities (p. 3). It is a constructive thinking process which involves application, analysis, evaluation and imagination (Taylor, 1984, p.391). Grabe (2008) attributed the complexity of the reading comprehension process to the multiple purposes of reading and the complex cognitive processes involved. In the present study, reading is viewed as a process of communication between a writer and a reader and this communication will be uncomplete unless it is affected by the readers evaluation and appreciation. In fact, both the reader and the writer contribut e to the reading process.Despite the uniqueness of second language reading processes (Geva and Wang, 2001 Koda, 2007), second language reading has drawn extensively on first language reading research. Different models have been adopted and adapted based on a variety of L1 reading theories. Below is a review of these theories.Reading Theories In A First LanguageA reading model provides an imagined facsimile of the reading process. It provides ways to represent a theory and explain what reading involves and how reading works based on visible(prenominal) evidence. Goldman, et al., (2007) explained the term model refers specifically to a representation of the psychological processes that comprise a component or set of components involved in human text comprehension (p. 27). According to Samuels (1994), a good theoretical model has three characteristics it summarizes a considerable amount of information discovered in the past it helps explain and make more graspable what is chance in the present, and it allows one to make predictions about the future (p. 816). Researchers, however, are somehow cautious about the comprehensibility of the model because of its inability to account for all the available evidence that exists. Dhieb-Henia (2002) warned that the models are not always backed up by sufficient empirical evidence to validate (them) (p. 18). In the aforementioned(prenominal) fashion, Grabe (2008) argued to assert that a model must be an accurate synthesis, () is problematic. Thus, these researchers recommend that we consider these models as a possible representation of the reading process, rather than peremptory models. They until now stress the key role that these models play in synthesizing information and establishing central claims (Grabe, 2008, p. 84).Reviewing the literature, four major approaches have been proposed in an attempt to understand the reading process. The major distinction between the approaches is the emphasis given to text-based va riables such as vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical structure and reader-based variables such as the readers background knowledge, cognitive development, strategy use, interest, and purpose (Lally, 1998). The following sections review these approaches and discuss them with reference to the specific context of the present study.The Bottom-Up ApproachThe concept of decipher is central to what is usually called the bottom-upapproach to reading. The term bottom-up originated in perception psychology, where it is used to signify the processing of external stimuli (Mulder, 1996). In readingresearch, the term is not always used in a consistent manner and has drifted away from the original meaning it had in perception psychology. Nevertheless, the term always focuses on what are called lower order processes, i.e. decoding ability and word recognition ability (Mulder, 1996). These abilities are believed to form the key toproficient reading. In other words, the reader perceives every letter, organizes the perceived letters into words, and then organizes the words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning, at any level, (e.g. word or phrase), is accessed only once processing at previous (e.g. lower) levels has been completed (Carrell, 1988). The argument is that bottom-up processing requires a true(a) or fundamental understanding of the language. Carrell (1993, p. 2) maintainedReading (is) viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing the authors intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and build up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to larger and larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, intersentential linkages.Advocates of this theory argue that successful reading comprehension of a text relies heavily on an efficient application of bottom-up processes. The best known representative of this type of approach is Goughs (1972) model. The model is summarised by Urquhart and Weir a s followsThe reader begins with letters, which are recognized by a SCANNER. The information thus gained is passed to a DECODER, which converts the wander of letters into a string of dictatorial phonemes. This string is then passed to a LIBRARIAN, where with the help of the LEXICON, it is recognized as a word. The reader then fixates on the next word, andproceeds in the same way until all the words in a sentence have been processed, at which point they proceed to a component called MERLIN, in which syntactic and semantic rules operate to assign a meaning to the sentence. The final stage is that of the Vocal System, where the reader utters orally what has first been accessed through print. (Urquhart Weir, 1998 40)The decoding approach, however, has been viewed by many as inadequate. According to Eskey (1973), the approach underestimates the contribution of the reader. The reader, according to this approach, does not read the text through a self- figured, predefined perspective or g oal, but rather lets the text itself (and therefrom its author) get back the reading process (Urquhart Weir, 1998). The approach fails to recognize that readers utilize their expectations about the text based on their knowledge of language and how it works. Similarly, Carrell (1984) stated that this view assumes a rather passive view of reading. Grabe (2008) stated we know that such an extreme view of reading is not accurate, and no current model of reading depicts reading as a pure bottom-up process (p. 89). Criticism of the bottom-up theory has given impetus to the Top- down theory.The Top-Down ApproachWhereas the bottom-up approach gives incoming information a central place in the reading process, the top-down approach focuses on the knowledge a reader already possesses. It stresses what are called higher order cognitive processes. The top-down theory posits a non-linear view of the reading process, i.e. from higher levels of processing, and proceeds to use the lower levels se lectively. It assumes that readers interrogate the text rather than process it completely. They get meaning by comparing their expectations to a sample of information from the text. The proponents of this theory argue that readers experience and background knowledge is indwelling for understanding a text.Grabe (2008) explained top-down models assume that the reader actively controls the comprehension process, directed by reader goals, expectations, and strategic processing (p. 89). Carrell (1993, p. 4) statedIn the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, but everything in the readers prior experience or background knowledge plays a significant role in the process. In this view, not only is the readers prior linguistic knowledge (linguistic dodgeta) and level of proficiency in the second language important, but the readers prior background knowledge of the content area of the text (content schemata) as well as of the rhetorical structure of the text (formal schemata) are also important.According to this view, the readers background knowledge may compensate for certain syntactic and lexical deficiencies. Readers cast down with their background knowledge (whole text) and make predictions about the text, and then verify their predictions by using text data (words) in the text (Urquhart Cyril, 1998). Clarke and Silberstein (1977, p.136-137) stated that more information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page, that is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation. The most much cited representative of this approach is Goodmans (1976) top-down model. He defined reading as a process of verifying hypotheses hypotheses that are based on knowledge which the reader possesses. His model, also called the guessing game theory, is summarised by Bossers as followsAccording to Goodman, the reading process consisted of s ampling and selecting cues, on the basis of which an interpretation is predicted or guessed, which is after well-tried against the semantic context, and then confirmed or rejected as the reader processes further language, and so on. These stages of the process were called features of the reading process or impelling strategies or effective reading behaviour alternatively. (Bossers,199210).A very influential theory that is usually discussed in relation to the top-downperspective is that of schema theory. The prior knowledge gained through experiences, stored in ones mind and activated when readers encounter new information is referred to in the literature as schemata (Carrell, 1980 Widdowson, 1983).Schema TheorySchema theory, which comes from cognitive psychology, owes much to the work of Bartlett (Rumelhart, 1981) and Piaget (Orasanu and Penny, 1986). Schemata, the plural form of schema, also called building blocks of cognition (Rumelhart, 1981, p. 3), refer to abstract knowledge structure (s) stored in memory (Garner, 1987, p. 4). They are defined as the mental framework that helps the learner organize knowledge, direct perception and attention, and guide recall (Bruming, 1995), as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory (Widdowson,1983) and as the underlying connections that allow new experience and information to be aligned with previous knowledge ( McCarthy ,1991).Within the framework of schema theory, reading comprehension is no longer a linear, text-driven process, but is the process of the interpretation of new information, and the assimilation and accommodation of this information into memory structures or schemata (Anderson Pearson, 1984). Schemata are not static entities, however, but are continually constructed and reconstructed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In other words, a comprehension of a text involves activating of relevant schemata, which are initiated as a resul t of bottom-up observation, and proceeds through a constant process of testing the activated schemata, evaluating their suitability, and shade or discarding them (Rumelhart, (1984, pp. 3, 6). Rumelhart (1981, p. 4) stated according to schema theories, all knowledge is packed into units (which) are the schemata. Embedded in these packets of knowledge, in addition to the knowledge itself, is information about how thisInvestigation of Tunisian Geography TeachersInvestigation of Tunisian Geography TeachersIntroductionThe purpose of this study was to investigate some Tunisian geography teachers/researchers reading of research articles (RA) in English in their field, in particular their use of metadiscourse and the factors that might affect this use. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods addressed the purposes of this study. Two major reasons have motivated the choice of this topic theoretical and contextual.Theoretical Justifications Of The StudyA good number of studies have highlighted the facilitative role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension (e.g. Camiciottoli, 2003). Metadiscourse is defined, in the present study, as self-reflective linguistic material referring to the evolving text and to the writer and to the imagined reader of that text (Hyland and Tse, 2004, p. 156). In defining reading comprehension, I adopted the componential interactive approach (e.g. Grabe, 2008). According to this approach, readers are active participants who actively take knowledge, connect it to previously assimilated knowledge and make it theirs by constructing their own interpretation. They develop, modify and even reflect on all or some of the ideas displayed in the text.Research has shown that second language (SL) and foreign language (FL) reading comprehension process is highly complex (Grabe, 2008 Koda, 2007 Sheng, 2000). Indeed, a wide range of variables intervene in the process linguistic, metalinguistic, cognitive, metacognitive, social and psy chological (Koda, 2005 Pressley, 2006 Rapp et al., 2007). Researchers reported the difficulty to clearly understand the exact degree of the contribution of each variable to the final product. All aspects of the reader variables interact with one another and interact with textual and contextual factors (e.g. Dhieb-Henia, 2003).Different models have been proposed in the literature in order to take account of these factors (the Top-down approach, the Bottom-up approach, the Interactive approach) (Grabe, 2008). Also, there has been a debate among SL reading researchers about whether SL reading is a language problem or a reading problem (Alderson, 1984, Bernhardt and Kamil, 1995 Grabe, 1991 Khaldieh, 2001). Some researchers contended that some SL linguistic knowledge threshold was necessary in order to get first language (L1) reading knowledge to engage and first language reading strategies to transfer (Cummins (1979) threshold level of language proficiency and Clarkes (1978) linguistic ceiling). Others argued that reading difficulties in a SL can be caused by a deficient reading ability in general, or can be caused by a failing transfer of L1 reading ability to an FL (the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, or alternatively called the common underlying principle (Bernhardt Kamil, 1995).Reading in English for Academic purposes (EAP) is still a more complex process (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). EAP is concerned with the English required for specific academic purpose such as studying at universities and colleges, doing research or publishing papers. Based on the literature, the present study views EAP reading as the ability to read an EAP discourse as the product of a particular disciplinary culture (e.g., Swales, 2004). Daoud (1991, p. 6), for instance, recommended that non-native readers (of EAP) should acquire those abilities which would allow them to recognize the existence of certain types of implicit presuppositional rhetorical information, abilities that the experienced native reader possesses. Studies in Contrastive Rhetoric (CR) have demonstrated that texts are shaped by their cultural origins even if they participate in international discourses such as those of the science disciplines (Burgess, 2002 Connor, 2004 Kaplan, 1966, 1987). Mauranen (1993) asserted that science, or more widely, academic research, does not exist outside writing, and so we cannot represent it, or realize it, without being influenced by the variation in the writing cultures that carry it (p. 4).This suggests that the belief that scientific academic discourses merely transmit natural facts is debatable. Hyland (2005) argued that discourses are never neutral but always engaged in that they realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the values of those who enact them (p. 4). The RA, for instance, is a discourse written by a particular writer belonging to a particular scientific discourse community in the purpose of engaging an audience and pers uading them of his/her findings (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2005 Martin, 2004). Webber (1994) explained scientists are writers who fight for their ideas to be accepted, recognized, and to be competitive and get their work published (p. 257). The tendency of scientific writers to choose a particular range of rhetorical devices, might reveal their attempts to establish interpersonal relations, to interact with their audience and to express personal attitudes about the content of their texts and about their audience(s).Metadiscourse is the linguistic system that enables writers to achieve these goals (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2004 2005 Martin, 2004). It represents some internal stylistic map whereby an external reality is created and conveyed. Metadiscourse also helps to perceive discourse as a social action between two parties, author(s) and audience, researchers and scientific communities in other words, writers and readers are viewed as social agents and texts as a social enterprise in which writ ers do not only want their messages to be understood (an illocutionary effect), but also to be accepted (a perlocutionary effect) (Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2001, p. 550) argues a central aspect of the writer-reader dialogue involves careful interpersonal negotiations in which writers seek to balance claims for the significance, originality, and truth of their work against the convictions of their readers. The readers ability to construct the writer-intended meaning, via metadiscourse, is one major key to a successful comprehension.This idea of interaction was grounded in Hallidays (1985) metafunctional theory of language. Halliday (1985) argued that language is a system of meanings and maintains that the writer needs to operate at three levels the ideational, the textual and the interpersonal. On the ideational plane, the writer supplies information about the subject of the text and expands propositional content, on the interactive plane, he/she does not add propositional material, bu t helps readers organize, classify, interpret, evaluate, and react to such material.Many researchers have attempted to investigate the contributions of metadiscourse to language teaching. However, most of the literature on metadiscourse has focused on the writing skill. The immense part of these studies has compared writers use of metadiscourse across cultures and disciplines (Dahl, 2004 Hyland TLe, 2004 Ifantidou, 2005 Lee, 2002 Perez Macia, 2002 Steffensen Cheng, 1996). Only a few studies have examined the role that this crucial part of discourse plays in reading comprehension skill.There is still an opaque picture of the correlation between the recognition of metadiscourse markers and reading comprehension performance. Indeed, a good number of the studies conducted with native readers of English has yielded inconclusive results (e.g., Crismore and Vande Kopple, 1997 OKeefe, 1988). While some researchers demonstrated the positive role of metadiscourse (e.g. Vande Kopple, 2002), other researchers concluded that metadiscourse did not have larger effects in their studies (e.g., Crismore, 1989).Research on the interaction between SL reading and metadiscourse seems to be still in its infancy. The little research carried out has demonstrated the complexity of the entreprise (Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003 Mustapha and Premalatha, 2001). In fact, research has shown that many factors could intervene in the reading process and hamper EAP readers from using metadiscourse, namely language proficiency, prior disciplinary knowledge and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Language proficiency refers to the ability to understand technical and semi-technical language used by a particular academic discourse community. Metacognition is the awareness readers have of their own mental processes and the subsequent ability to monitor, regulate, and direct themselves to a desired end. Prior knowledge includes knowl edge of the rhetorical conventions of the genre and the subject discipline. It has been also interesting to note that no study has investigated SL experts use of metadiscourse when reading materials in their fields.Local Justifications Of The StudyReading RAs is a prerequisite for doing research, updating ones knowledge and ultimately publishing RAs. Publication is not optional or a matter of personal choice in Tunisia. The last reform of postgraduate studies has given prior importance to the number of published RAs (Labbassi, 2000). Therefore, researchers who would like to become visible in the international scientific community, have to read and write RAs in English, the international Lingua Frinca in the age of electronic communication. In fact, in Tunisia there are few specialised local journals. Labassi (2008, p. 4120 aptly put reading and writing English have become unavoidable conditions for joining academic communities in almost all disciplines. The Tunisian geographical soc iety seems to be eager to integrate into the international geographic community. Indeed, the Tunisian Geographers Association, in collaboration with the International Geographical Union (IGU), managed to organise the 31st International Geographical Congress (IGC) in the country in 2008. Tunisia was the first Arab and African country to host the biggest appointment for geographers all over the world. Adding to that, there is a clear political intention to enhance English status in Tunisia. English is gaining ground over French, which has been until recently the principal language of modernity, as well as the dominant economic language. (Champagne, 2007 Labassi, 2009a, b Tossa, 1995). The Tunisian government is aiming at creating an English-speaking workforce to enhance the prospects for successful integration into the global economy. Under the New Maitrise reform of 1998, English was introduced in the curriculum of all undergraduate students from all disciplines (Labassi, 2009 a). Wh at is ironical, however, is that potential researchers and professionals who have to read a literature, which is up to 90% in some disciplines in English, are not offered courses in English (Labassi, 2009 a, p. 249).However, while the literature abounds with arguments for and against the role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension, little research has been conducted to assess the reading practices of the Tunisian geography society.Therefore, the present research aims to fill in this gap and gain more insight into the reading practices of some Tunisian university teachers/researchers of geography in particular it aims to assess the extent they use metadiscourse to facilitate their comprehension of RAs in English in their field and to find out about the variables that may hinder this use.Research ObjectivesThe main aims of the present research are three-fold (1) to determine to what extent Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading researc h articles in English in their fields, (2) to assess whether this use facilitates their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields, (3) to find to what extent this use is related to the participants proficiency in English, to text familiarity (defined in the present study in terms of both content and formal knowledge) and to their use of metacognitive reading strategies.Research QuestionsThe present study addresses the following questions1. To what extent do Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields?2. To what extent does this use relate to their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?3. To what extent do their proficiency in English, discipline-related knowledge (content and genre) and metacognitive reading strategies contribute to their use of metadiscourse markers and comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?Significance Of The StudyThis study explored the use of metadiscourse by some Tunisian geography faculty when reading research articles in English in their disciplines. Theoretically, findings from thestudy can help clarify the role metadiscourse plays in SL reading comprehension. The research into metadiscourse markers is useful in itself. It helps us have an insight into how writers interact with their readers to establish a reader-friendly atmosphere and to persuade them of their findings. Such information can add to our understanding of factors contributing to language pedagogy, in particular to the teaching of reading comprehension skill.At the practical level, information from this study can be useful for making decisions about organizing training sessions to university teachers/researchers to introduce them to the rhetorical conventions of academic genres, namely the research article and to the rhetorical importance of metadiscourse. They should be made aware of the facilitative role of metadiscourse mark ers when reading academic materials in English. Metadiscourse markers should be taught explicitly in EAP reading comprehension classes as a means to enhance the researchers reading comprehension ability.Thesis OrganisationThis thesis consists of six chapters. The first chapter describes the background of the research and the context in which the research was conducted. The second chapter comprises two sections the first is a review of research into the nature of foreign language reading. The second section provides a descriptive account of what metadiscourse is, then explores the studies conducted on the effects of metadiscourse, reviews a few taxonomies on metadiscourse and ends with a description of the taxonomy to be adopted in the present study. Research questions are presented after the discussions of these reviews. Chapter three concerns the methodological decisions taken for this research. It describes how the participants were selected, how the material and instruments were piloted, and which materials and instruments were finally used. It provides as well an account of how the main study was conducted and how the data were analysed. Chapter four reports the findings of the present study. Chapter five discusses the key findings from this study and highlights their implications for the area of EAP. The contributions and limitations of this research and suggestions for future research are presented in chapter six.Literature ReviewThe previous chapter introduced the context for this research. This chapter clarifies the two central variables underlying the present study, namely EAP reading comprehension and metadiscourse use. It can be divided into three parts. In the first part, I will focus on the reading variable. Since foreign language reading modeling has been strongly influenced by first language reading theories, I will first discuss four different approaches to reading in a first language, I will then explain how they have been adopted in and adapt ed for a foreign language reading context. Next, I will elaborate on theoretical concepts particular to reading in English for academic purposes (being the focus of the present study) and I will draw attention to studies that investigated the interaction between reading in English for Academic purposes and language proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies. This part aims at underscoring the complexity of the EAP reading process and the need to account for the many factors intervening in it. In the second part, I will introduce the second variable of the present study, metadiscouse. I will first try to define the concept and then provide an overview of its main assumptions and classifications to highlight the confusion surrounding the term and emphasize its benefits to EAP readers, and last I will detail Hylands (2005) taxonomy, the theoretical framework within which the present study is conducted. In the last part I will review some empirical studies that have invest igated the interaction between metadiscourse and EAP reading. This part will also draw attention to the scarcity of research in this area.Reading ComprehensionUnderstanding the processes involved in reading comprehension is a prerequisite to select reliable and valid research instruments. Alderson (2000) stated if we are not able to define what we mean by the ability to read, it will be difficult to devise means of assessing such abilities (p. 49). Likewise, Hogan (2004, p. 1) maintainedThe real question we are asking when we look at assessing reading is What distinguishes a good reader from a poor reader? Implicit in this question is an even more fundamental question What are we doing when we read? Assessment is an attempt to answer the first question, but if we cannot at least try to answer the second, we do not know what we are assessing, and any measure or description of reading proficiency we suggest is meaningless.Thus, in what follows I will first attempt to define the constr uct of reading comprehension, and then present a number of models that provide a framework for organizing and explaining the nature of reading comprehension. I will give due prominence, however, to the issues specific to reading in EAP dwelling upon the complex cognitive processes that EAP readers go through when they read. I will try to show how certain variables such as linguistic proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies interact with reading comprehension process.Definition Of The Construct Of Reading ComprehensionReading comprehension has often been a subject of controversy among teachers and scholars. Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated the terms understanding and comprehension are not scientific terms but are commonsense expressions. As with other such expressions, their meaning is fuzzy and imprecise. In defining the construct of reading comprehension, I adopted Kintschs (1998) theory of human text comprehension, as it is a widely-recognized theory of text comprehensi on and as it has consistently defined the research agenda for the field of text comprehension (Grabe, 2008, p. 3).The concepts of Comprehension and Understanding are used interchangeably in the present study as a matter of linguistic variation following Kintsch. Comprehension is to be understood in relation to perception and problem solving. Both perception and understanding involve unconscious and automatic processes. They can each be described as a process of constraint satisfaction (p. 3). They differ, however, in that understanding should result in an action, be it an overt action in the environment or a mental event (p. 3). Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated understand is used when the relationship between some object and its context is at issue or when action is required. As for the problem solving process, it is more complex and involves more demand on cognitive resources. It is an action readers resort to when they fail to understand something. Kintsch (1998) maintained perception and understanding are the processes people normally use when an impasse develops in perception or understanding, they resort to problem solving as a repair process (p. 3).Reading is the process in which the reader sequentially deals with letters, words and sentences. It was defined by Sheng (2000, p. 2) as the process of recognition, interpretation, and perception of written or printed material. Comprehension, on the other hand, involves the ability of the reader to grasp and interpret the meaning of written material, and to reason about cognitive processes that lead to understanding. In other words, it not only covers cognitive understanding of the materials at both surface and deep structure levels, but also the readers reactions to the content. Sheng (2000, p. 2) maintained it is a more complex psychological process and includes in addition to linguistic factors (phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic elements), cognitive and emotional factors. In sum, the process o f reading deals with language forms while the process of comprehension, the end product, deals with language content.The term reading comprehension can, in some respects, be considered a complex construct, as highlighted by numerous reading researchers (Carrell, 1988 Grabe, 1991 Kintsch, 1998 de Beaugrande, 1981). According to Brumfit (1980), reading comprehension is a complex activity covering a combination of perceptual, linguistic and cognitive abilities (p. 3). It is a constructive thinking process which involves application, analysis, evaluation and imagination (Taylor, 1984, p.391). Grabe (2008) attributed the complexity of the reading comprehension process to the multiple purposes of reading and the complex cognitive processes involved. In the present study, reading is viewed as a process of communication between a writer and a reader and this communication will be incomplete unless it is affected by the readers evaluation and appreciation. In fact, both the reader and the wr iter contribute to the reading process.Despite the uniqueness of second language reading processes (Geva and Wang, 2001 Koda, 2007), second language reading has drawn extensively on first language reading research. Different models have been adopted and adapted based on a variety of L1 reading theories. Below is a review of these theories.Reading Theories In A First LanguageA reading model provides an imagined representation of the reading process. It provides ways to represent a theory and explain what reading involves and how reading works based on available evidence. Goldman, et al., (2007) explained the term model refers specifically to a representation of the psychological processes that comprise a component or set of components involved in human text comprehension (p. 27). According to Samuels (1994), a good theoretical model has three characteristics it summarizes a considerable amount of information discovered in the past it helps explain and make more understandable what is happening in the present, and it allows one to make predictions about the future (p. 816). Researchers, however, are somehow cautious about the comprehensibility of the model because of its inability to account for all the available evidence that exists. Dhieb-Henia (2002) warned that the models are not always backed up by sufficient empirical evidence to validate (them) (p. 18). In the same fashion, Grabe (2008) argued to assert that a model must be an accurate synthesis, () is problematic. Thus, these researchers recommend that we consider these models as a possible representation of the reading process, rather than absolute models. They nonetheless stress the key role that these models play in synthesizing information and establishing central claims (Grabe, 2008, p. 84).Reviewing the literature, four major approaches have been proposed in an attempt to understand the reading process. The major distinction between the approaches is the emphasis given to text-based variables such as vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical structure and reader-based variables such as the readers background knowledge, cognitive development, strategy use, interest, and purpose (Lally, 1998). The following sections review these approaches and discuss them with reference to the specific context of the present study.The Bottom-Up ApproachThe concept of decoding is central to what is usually called the bottom-upapproach to reading. The term bottom-up originated in perception psychology, where it is used to signify the processing of external stimuli (Mulder, 1996). In readingresearch, the term is not always used in a consistent manner and has drifted away from the original meaning it had in perception psychology. Nevertheless, the term always focuses on what are called lower order processes, i.e. decoding ability and word recognition ability (Mulder, 1996). These abilities are believed to form the key toproficient reading. In other words, the reader perceives every letter, organizes the perceived letters into words, and then organizes the words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning, at any level, (e.g. word or phrase), is accessed only once processing at previous (e.g. lower) levels has been completed (Carrell, 1988). The argument is that bottom-up processing requires a literal or fundamental understanding of the language. Carrell (1993, p. 2) maintainedReading (is) viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing the authors intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and building up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to larger and larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, intersentential linkages.Advocates of this theory argue that successful reading comprehension of a text relies heavily on an efficient application of bottom-up processes. The best known representative of this type of approach is Goughs (1972) model. The model is summarised by Urquhart and Weir as followsThe reader begins with letters, which are recognized by a SCANNER. The information thus gained is passed to a DECODER, which converts the string of letters into a string of systematic phonemes. This string is then passed to a LIBRARIAN, where with the help of the LEXICON, it is recognized as a word. The reader then fixates on the next word, andproceeds in the same way until all the words in a sentence have been processed, at which point they proceed to a component called MERLIN, in which syntactic and semantic rules operate to assign a meaning to the sentence. The final stage is that of the Vocal System, where the reader utters orally what has first been accessed through print. (Urquhart Weir, 1998 40)The decoding approach, however, has been viewed by many as inadequate. According to Eskey (1973), the approach underestimates the contribution of the reader. The reader, according to this approach, does not read the text through a self-determined, predefined perspective or goal, but rathe r lets the text itself (and therefore its author) determine the reading process (Urquhart Weir, 1998). The approach fails to recognize that readers utilize their expectations about the text based on their knowledge of language and how it works. Similarly, Carrell (1984) stated that this view assumes a rather passive view of reading. Grabe (2008) stated we know that such an extreme view of reading is not accurate, and no current model of reading depicts reading as a pure bottom-up process (p. 89). Criticism of the bottom-up theory has given impetus to the Top- down theory.The Top-Down ApproachWhereas the bottom-up approach gives incoming information a central place in the reading process, the top-down approach focuses on the knowledge a reader already possesses. It stresses what are called higher order cognitive processes. The top-down theory posits a non-linear view of the reading process, i.e. from higher levels of processing, and proceeds to use the lower levels selectively. It a ssumes that readers interrogate the text rather than process it completely. They get meaning by comparing their expectations to a sample of information from the text. The proponents of this theory argue that readers experience and background knowledge is essential for understanding a text.Grabe (2008) explained top-down models assume that the reader actively controls the comprehension process, directed by reader goals, expectations, and strategic processing (p. 89). Carrell (1993, p. 4) statedIn the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, but everything in the readers prior experience or background knowledge plays a significant role in the process. In this view, not only is the readers prior linguistic knowledge (linguistic schemata) and level of proficiency in the second language important, but the readers prior background knowledge of the content area of the text (content schemata) as well as of the rhetorical structure of the text (formal schemata) are also important.According to this view, the readers background knowledge may compensate for certain syntactic and lexical deficiencies. Readers start with their background knowledge (whole text) and make predictions about the text, and then verify their predictions by using text data (words) in the text (Urquhart Cyril, 1998). Clarke and Silberstein (1977, p.136-137) stated that more information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page, that is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation. The most frequently cited representative of this approach is Goodmans (1976) top-down model. He defined reading as a process of verifying hypotheses hypotheses that are based on knowledge which the reader possesses. His model, also called the guessing game theory, is summarised by Bossers as followsAccording to Goodman, the reading process consisted of sampling and sele cting cues, on the basis of which an interpretation is predicted or guessed, which is subsequently tested against the semantic context, and then confirmed or rejected as the reader processes further language, and so on. These stages of the process were called features of the reading process or effective strategies or effective reading behaviour alternatively. (Bossers,199210).A very influential theory that is usually discussed in relation to the top-downperspective is that of schema theory. The prior knowledge gained through experiences, stored in ones mind and activated when readers encounter new information is referred to in the literature as schemata (Carrell, 1980 Widdowson, 1983).Schema TheorySchema theory, which comes from cognitive psychology, owes much to the work of Bartlett (Rumelhart, 1981) and Piaget (Orasanu and Penny, 1986). Schemata, the plural form of schema, also called building blocks of cognition (Rumelhart, 1981, p. 3), refer to abstract knowledge structure (s) s tored in memory (Garner, 1987, p. 4). They are defined as the mental framework that helps the learner organize knowledge, direct perception and attention, and guide recall (Bruming, 1995), as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory (Widdowson,1983) and as the underlying connections that allow new experience and information to be aligned with previous knowledge ( McCarthy ,1991).Within the framework of schema theory, reading comprehension is no longer a linear, text-driven process, but is the process of the interpretation of new information, and the assimilation and accommodation of this information into memory structures or schemata (Anderson Pearson, 1984). Schemata are not static entities, however, but are continually constructed and reconstructed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In other words, a comprehension of a text involves activation of relevant schemata, which are initiated as a result of bottom-up o bservation, and proceeds through a constant process of testing the activated schemata, evaluating their suitability, and refining or discarding them (Rumelhart, (1984, pp. 3, 6). Rumelhart (1981, p. 4) stated according to schema theories, all knowledge is packed into units (which) are the schemata. Embedded in these packets of knowledge, in addition to the knowledge itself, is information about how this

Hotel External Environment and Internal Environment Analysis

Hotel External Environment and Internal Environment AnalysisIntroductionIn judicial terms Law is defined as, a rule of conduct or action prescribed or formally recognized as binding or enforced by a controlling authority asaa command or provision enacted by a legislature.Basically it is a set of regulation and regulations of conduct, which be practiced in general. These rules and regulations are bound by legislature.In this assignment I will be discussing law in context with Consideration and Contract.Question 1 marketing emphasises on meeting the needs of the consumers and providing them with value, and benefits, while at the said(prenominal) time handling the organisation in an efficient and profitable expressive style.Marketing is a process that involves constant adaptation and implementation of the varying consumer trends, and demands. While at the same time having a emulous advantage over the competitors, and while at the same time ensuring that the satisfaction of these ne eds result in a healthy turnover for the organisation.Objective of the courseworkThe neutral of this assignment is to analyse the Manor House plain nine-spot Hotels (MHCCH) external environment and internal environment. I shall use PESTEL Analysis, Industry Analysis and MHCCHs Opportunity and affright abbreviation to draw out the companys external environment and Core competencies, Value chain, Ansoff Matrix, strength and weakness of MHCCH will be applied to illustrate the internal environment.Overview of the HotelIn 1992, Manor House Country Club Hotel was established as a family owned business by the Jenkins Family, in Singapore. The MHCCH spans over 3 acres of reputable reclaimed land, and is operating currently as a single hotel. The Hotel generates various varieties of Luxurious accommodations, and serves tourists from around the World. The hotel also serves its customers with various types of cuisines, from its modernised Restaurant the hotel also has Bistro that is a uthorize to sell alcoholic drinks. For corporate meetings and conferences to be held in the hotel, the hotel has adequate premises and facilities. And other(a) miscellaneous services provided by the hotel include a Beauty Salon. In short it sewer be said that the MHCCH stands up to the luxurious benchmark that it projects.Analysis of the Micro Environment (Internal)The Micro/internal factors are the forces inside the hotel that can affect the performance of the hotel, thus through the micro environment summary, we search for and devise a strategy to overcome those shortcomings that might hinder the progress of the hotel.SW (Strength and Weakness) Analysis(S)trengthsThe MHCCH is located at a prime and favourable location, which is easily accessible.The MHCCH successfully depicts its Luxury position in the tourism and hospitality manufacturing, thus differentiating it from the competition.It is certify to serve alcoholic drinks in the hotel, thus widening its consumer base, and s cope for profitability.Additional accommodation was added by MHCCH in 2002, so now it can house more than customers, hence an increase in productivity.The Market value of MHCCH is eight times more than its actual value, which is the sign of a profitable and stable business.(W)eaknessesThere has been a consecutive decline in the number of corporate clients for the Hotel in the past years, while the number of trade conferences held in the country has gone up by 30%.Over set of the room rates above the average price level for exchangeable rooms in other warlike hotels whitethorn lead to a decline in the number of customers.As for the current situation the MHCCH lacks direction in terms of a strategic plan for expansion, and its point consumers, those are essential for the development of the MHCCH.RecommendationsMHCCH can provide better meeting/conferencing facilities to its corporate clients to up the number of corporate bookings. Also it can reconsider its pricing policies and p rovide trade discounts to its clients.The accommodation/room tariffs to be priced at a market competitive rate, and not at exorbitant prices, which might set the customers off.A strategic marketing and action plan to be set by the MHCCH while keeping its prime priorities in focus.ConclusionThe shortcomings of the MHCCH are not of a major nature, they can be rectified by adopting simple corrective actions, like a strategic plan. It is quite natural for any organisations to face hurdles in its developmental phase.Core competencies (Micro Analysis)Core competencies are what makes an organisation different from others, in most cases its direct competition. The MHCCH can develop its core competency on the basis of its luxury position in the market. It moldiness aim at providing quality services to its customers at competitive prices. This also increases its foothold in the competitive market. As it is in the core culture of an organisation, to satisfy its customers and providing them the value for their money, that is what constitutes the basic differences among the various organisations.Value chain (Micro Analysis)The basic motive of the value chain is to provide the customers with a certain level of value that surpass the cost of the activities and ultimately it appears in a profit margin. The value chain of MHCCH is presented belowQuality usefulness The hotel management has to ensure that the customers are provided with last quality services that are worth the price that a customer is paying. So that the customer is satisfied.Satisfaction of customer needs The second step is to meet the specific needs and demands of the customers as per their tastes and preferences, as the service industry tends to be very personal, tailor-made arrangements permit to be made to meet the customer needs.Trained and Efficient staff Every customer expects to be treated in the most hospitable and best manner possible, thus MHCCH should be certain that the staffs is well-trained an d efficient when it comes to dealing with the customers.Marketing and Brand building In this stage, MHCCH is looking for potential buyers to sell the services it offers and to do this they do advertising, pricing and so on And build a reputable image in the market, which is also a critical factor to Customer satisfaction.There are roughly aiding factors to the points discussed above which cannot be fulfilled without the help of these1). InfrastructureThe aesthetic appeal of the hotel is a crucial factor of the quality it signifies in its service, thus the infrastructure should be as enticing and attractive as the services provided within the MHCCH.2). SpecialisationTo satisfy the specific customer demands, the hotel has to keep in mind that meeting those demands is crucial and difficult at the same time, thus specialisation in fulfilling the customer needs is an essential supporting factor.3). Human Resource ManagementThe staff must be recruited and accordingly trained to deal wi th its customers, as the employees of MHCCH reflect the image of the hotel itself. Thus HRM is a bare necessity in the strategic planning process.4). Marketing ResearchWith proper analytical tools and a better understanding of the market, the task of marketing becomes much easier for MHCCH, leaving a long lasting impression in the customers mind.Macro analysis (External)By scanning the macro the environment, the company can devise a better strategy towards overcoming the identified threats and to utilize the on hand(predicate) opportunities.OT (Opportunities and Threats)(O)pportunitiesTapping the benefits of the high growth of tourism industry in Singapore.High demand of varying cuisines/lifestyles.Scope of expansion in conference/family travel groups.Expand the MHCCH brand by investing in external property, through borrowing/re-investing profit.(T)hreatsHighly competitive hotel industry, competitive pricing, similar services, etc. If proper steps to maintain and expand MHCCH are not taken, then this could be a potential threat to the hotel.Lack of Differentiation is another factor that serves as a threat to MHCCH as at that place are various segments i.e. budget youth hostels, five star hotels, backpacker lodges, etc. MHCCH should hold on to a particular segment and differentiate itself from others on its basis.Increasing Bureaucracy and the various newly rules and regulations imposed by the government can cause hindrances in the expansion plans of MHCCH, e.g. licenses and permits required to carry out about activities in the Hotel.Pestel AnalysisPESTEL represents Political, Economic, Social, Technical, Environment and Legislative factors which are external in nature. The current and future change of six key areas can affect the MHCCHs business. The PESTEL analysis explores the broad environment in which the MHCCH is operating.Political Factor These contain the rules and regulations implemented on the Hotel by the Government. The Singapore government is inclined on increasing its popularity as a tourist destination, thus a beneficial factor for MHCCH.Economic Factors Singapore is among some of the fastest growing eastern economies, thus the GDP and the macrocosm spending is on a constant rise, so is the purchasing power of the citizens of Singapore and the Tourists. Again its in favour of MHCCH.Social Factors The Cultural and social aspects of a country are highly important to the business, the current trend of the growing demand for new styles of food and drink is a sign of the change in the social factor.Technological Factors Technology is directly linked to modernisation, the hotel has to keep up to date with the latest technological changes in the business environment, for e.g. Wireless internet, Computer bay, HDTVs, etc. This improves the quality and quantity of the stay of the customers.Environmental Factors Drastic changes are occurring in the global environment nowadays also environmental awareness is becoming more common by the day. Environment friendly applications need to be adopted by MHCCH to balance its responsibility towards the environment.Legal Factors The MHCCH must abide by the lawmaking operating in their geographical territory (Asian Legislation). This affects their business hugely. It may serve in or against their favour, depending on the legislation.Part BThe Manor House Country Club Hotel can expand its business in within the next two years by following these strategies/theories.Ansoff MatrixThe Ansoff Matrix is useful in deciding the companys product and market growth strategy. The Ansoff Matrix in reference to MHCCH isMarket Penetration MHCCH is building a stronger market position by providing similar luxury services as the other hotels in the same market.Market Development MHCCH is investing in its site to develop its unused land into puny leisure centres. These investments are aimed at developing a stronger position of the hotel in the market.Product Development The main focus o f MHCCH is on developing its service tract by improving the infrastructure and attracting more customers. By investing in the hotel, the services they offer can be developedDiversification This involves MHCCH entering a business that is not currently a part of their agenda, which at the moment it is not doing, but they can consider diversification into the alternatives in future, as it leads to added income and goodwill.Porters gridironPorters Grid is also well known as Porters Five Force analysis. These were developed by Michael E. Porter. The competitive environment of the MHCCH is explored in depth through the Porters analysis below1). Bargaining power of the SupplierThe supply in this industry is largely based on FMCGs (Fast Moving Consumer Goods) which is quite flexible considering the fact that the Hotel buys its supplies in bulk quantities. Thus the ready availability of the goods by the suppliers and the perennial demand of the goods limit the bargaining power of the suppl iers.2). Bargaining power of BuyersThere are many alternatives to choose from for the customers of MHCCH as there are rooms of varying levels of luxury and prices, ranging from basic single-bed room to ultra luxury Suite packages. There are other hotels offering similar rooms to them at competitive prices, thus buyers do have their share of bargaining power in this case.3). Threat of new entrantsThe hotel industry in Singapore is facing tough competition not only from the entry of locally based hotels but also giant multinational hotel chains, the new entrants might turn up as a threat for the company.4). Threat of SubstitutesMHCCH basically provides accommodation oriented services to its customers, while there are a large number of substitutes available for them, to obtain similar services. The main differentiating factor here is pricing, and the difference in the quality of the services. There exists a strong threat of substitutes, but with a well planned pricing policy, this thre at may be avoided.5). Rivalry among competitorsRivalry among competitors is fairly high for MHCCH as the rivals offer the same services/products, and they operate in the same market and environment. While at the same time there are new competitors entering the market. And also the buyers have the power to buy the services/products at lower prices.ConclusionAs of now MHCCH is operating as successful enterprise, which through proper strategic planning can be developed into a much more flourishing business, and a highly successful hotel.But for Manor House Country Club Hotel to successfully expand its business in the next two years, it is advisable for them to adopt the Market/Product development strategy, as it provides them with an opportunity to utilise their available resources in an optimum manner, while at the same time continuing the routine functioning of business.

Use of Reflective Practice in Nursing Essay -- Professional Growth thr

In this essay, I will be summarizing and exploring my understanding of reflective practice. meditative practice is the process of learning through and from experience towards gaining new insights of self and practice (Boud et al 1985 Boyd and Fales, 1983 Mezirow, 1981, Jarvis, 1992). This generally involves examining assumptions of everyday practice. It also requires the individual practician to be self-aware and to critically evaluate their responses to practice situations. The point is to recapture practice experiences and think about them critically in order to gain new understandings and so improve future practice. This is understood as part of the process of life-long learning. This process of learning from reflection brings self-awareness, gaining friendship and enhancing communication skills, were the key learning points that I learnt in spite of appearance this discussion. From this discussion itself I learnt new features and ways which gave me the ability to learn how to enhance my communication skills. I have also gained knowledge from on-line discussion with members of the stem who have shared their knowledge and acquiring from literature. However, this process of continuously learning gave me a deeper insight of new features and methods that allowed me to challenge myself by merely sharing knowledge within an on-line discussion.In reflective practice, practitioners engage in a continuous cycle of self-observation and self-evaluation in order to understand their own actions and the reactions they prompt in themselves and in learners (Brookfield, 1995 Thiel, 1999). The goal is not necessarily to address a specific problem or question defined at the outset, as in practitioner research, but to observe and refine practice in gen... ... R. (2011). ABC of Action Learning. Gower Publishing Limited SurreySchon, D.(1983)The Reflective Practitioner. New Yorks Books.EGAN, G. (2007) The Skilled Helper.9th ed. BelmontBrooks/Cole Cengage Learning.SUSAN, W. W. and IAN McGILL (1989) fashioning Sense of Experiential Learning, London, UnitedJarvis, P. (1992) Reflective practice and nursing. Nurse Education Today, 12(3), 174-181.LINDA, D. R. and MARY, W. (2001) Principles and Practice of Informal Education, London, Routledge FalmerMcgill, I and Beard, L. (2001) Action Learning a guide for professional. focus & educational development Oxon Routledge.Mezirow, J. (1981) A critical theory of adult learning and eduaiton. Adult Education,32(1), 3-24. Schn, D. A. (1987) Teaching artistry through reflection-in-action, In Educating the reflective practitioner (pp. 22-40) San Francisco

The Importance of Self-image in Hamlet Essay examples -- GCSE English

The Importance of Self-image in small town Self-image plays a big role in how people act. Hamlets inability to know himself or to understand his own motives leads to the restless battles between right and wrong in his conscience, which is the reason for his unpredictable tragical actions, and behaviors. Hamlets disorderliness is clearly shown in his soliloquies. His confused mind can be broken into five categories. Hamlet suffers from his own moral standards, the desperate need to seek the truth, want of confidence and trust in his own impulses, self-hatred, and melancholy. Each of these categories contribute to Hamlets troubled mind. Hamlet based a lot of his actions on his religious moral standards. Although Hamlet had high morals, he still had many impulses that were against his moral standards that he wanted to carry out such as the murder of his pay back and his thoughts on suicide. His canon gainst self-slaughter O God, God, how weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world (I, ii, 36-138) Hamlet is saying that if it wasnt against his religion to commit suicide, he would do it. In his quaternary soliloquy, Hamlet says, Thus, conscience does make coward of us all. (III, i, 91) Hamlet blames his inability to act out his impulses on these moral standards that have been ingrained into his conscience. He finds the restrictions in his world unbearable because it is confined within religious and social class barriers. As a young man, Hamlets mind is full of many questions about the events that occur during his conglomerate life. This leads to the next two categories of his mind. His need to seek the truth and his lack of confidence in his own impulses. Hamlets confusion in what he wants to ... ...tude of the medieval men in his time. He thinks a lot, considers his motivations and finds evidence for his fathers deed before he executes his actions. This is why Hamlet couldnt understand himself, his character differs from th e typical man of his times and thereof his motives give be different too. Hamlet anomic his confidence and therefore couldnt decide on whether to act or not since he lost his understanding of himself. So therefore, a little corruption in Hamlets world, mixed with his characteristics that just werent right his time lead him to his tragic end as a result of his actions and inactions. In conclusion, confidence in ourselves can lead us to do great and reasonable things. Losing that self-assurance will lead us to become indecisive and weak individuals. This corruption of character can ultimately lead to a tragic decline in our beau ideal world.

Psychological Perspectives of Human Growth and Development Essay

Psychological Perspectives of Human Growth and DevelopmentThe following will analyse the Psychodynamic scheme founded by Sigmund Freud. It will focus on the components of the mind including the Conscious, the pre- informed proper and the Unconscious. Examining his structure of Personality with reference to The Id, Ego and Super-ego. It will discuss Freuds proposal of stages within his psychosexual development. It will then focus on Carl Rogers Humanistic theory, explaining his concept of the Actualizing tendency and incorporating his creations of Self concept, the Organismic self-importance and the Ideal self. As a contribution to Rogers work also highlighting Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of needs. Freud and Rogers will then be compared and contrasted, focusing on the human developmental stage of childhood.According to Freud there are three levels of Consciousness within the mind. The conscious holds thoughts and feelings that we are fully aware of, it can be verbalised and logically thought about.The pre-conscious proper holds memories that only when thought of can be brought back into the Conscious. Information is easily shared between the conscious and the pre-conscious proper.The Unconscious. Material here is deemed painful and repressed (locked away) yet still has strength to influence our actions. We have conscious thoughts that we are aware of and unconscious thoughts that egress in our mind in the form of dreams. Moreover, what happens in our conscious mind in turn influences what thoughts filter through to our unconscious mind (Gross, The Science of consciousness and Behaviour, 2010) (Ingleby, 2006, p. 7)Freud related this to a model Iceberg. The tip acts as 10% relating to the Conscious as only th... ...ross, R. (2010). Psychology- The Science and Mind of Behaviour. London Hodder Education.Ingleby, E. (2006). Applied Psychology for affectionate work. Glasgow Bell & Bain Ltd.Kazlev, M. (2004, August 13th). Sigmund Freud. Retrieved November 7th, 2010 , from Psychoanalytical Psychology http//www.kheper.net/topics/psychology/Freud.htmlR.Shaffer, D. (1946). Developmental Psychology Childhood Development. California digest/Cole Publishing Company.Rogers, C. (1959). A theory of therapy, disposition and interpersonal relationships. New York McGraw Hill.Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person A theropists view of Psychotherapy. Boston Houghton-Mifflin.Rowan, J. (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy The dialects of Humanistic Psychology(3rd edn) . Hove Brunner-Routledge.Shaffer, D. R. (1946). Developmental Pyschology, Childhoody and Adolescene. California Brooks/Cole.

Pride And Prejudice :: essays research papers

Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen is a novel that goes into great detail discussing the reasons for marriage. Marriage in the 1800s, when this novel took place, was real different from conventional marriages today. In that period in time, reasons for marriages were wealth, convenience, and most uncommonly, love.The first of these reasons is the subject of wealth. The opening sentence of Pride and Prejudice states, "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife." In the 19th century, women usually only wanted to marry men if they were rich. This was the guys way of getting a wife, if they were fortunate enough. As Mrs. Bennet says, "If I set up memorize one of my daughters happily settled at Netherfieldand the others equally married, I shall have nothing to wish for." One easily realizes how obsessed Mrs. Bennet is with having rich son-in-laws. all in all that matters to her is having her daugh ters married to wealthy men. This one concern was not scarce in the era.The second of the three reasons is convenience. Charlotte Lucas says it best "I only ask a favorable home and considering Mr. Collins character, connections, and situation in life, I am convinced that my chance of happiness with him is as fair as most people can boast" Collins isnt wealthy, but all that Charlotte wants, he can give her. This marriage is by far the most convenient of the novel. Another great event of a marriage of convenience is Mr. and Mrs. Bennet. This convenient marriage is not as easily seen, though one notices how formal they are with each other. Mr. and Mrs. Bennet dont reckon to like each other at all. This seems to be very far from Jane Austens view of marriage, though.The third reason for marriage is love. Although a marriage brought about by love was very uncommon at this time, Jane Austen believed it was the only true reason. Elizabeth Bennet was Jane Austens "mouthpiece " regarding this. Austen showed her new fangled views of marriage though the character of Lizzie. A prime slip of marrying for the reason of love is Jane and Mr. Bingley. These two characters were attracted to each other from the very beginning, and are the only characters in the novel that truly married out of a costly love for each other.